Examining Children And Domestic Violence

Examining Children And Domestic ViolenceThis essay exit explore and critic eachy talk over issues about house servantated military force and effects on minorren with regards to the framework for constructing childhood. I lead as well briefly exposit the historical definition of childhood gougevas it to the current definition and the links to children and municipal force out. jam and Prout (1997) tell that Childhood flock be understood as a social construction as it hand overs an interpretive frame for contextualizing the early years of human life and it is incompatible from biological immaturity. He as well suggested that to an ex cardinalt the definition of childhood is leechlike on the views of the society. The concept of childhood has changed overtime, due to social construction that is fuelled by our views of children, our attitudes towards them and views constructed through human understanding. This change has a big impact on children and how society sees them t hese changes be due to political and theoretical influences (James and James, 2004). James and James (2004) suggested that there is a sense loss of childhood, as children ar macrocosm denied their near to childhood and they atomic number 18 unfastened to the unpredictable and impulsive of the adult world too early.History of childhoodIn Western Europe during the middle ages children were seen as miniature adults, with alike(p) thinking capacity and personal qualities, except not the same physical abilities. From 15th century Aries suggested that the idea of childhood has changed scarcely the images and paintings of children changed as a new understanding of childhood emerged allowing children to be seen as distinct from adults because they had their own necessarily. Shahar challenged the Aries views, she argues that the perceptions of children as adults goes beyond the 15th century children were perceived as either been born innocent or sullied by original sin (James and James, 2004). The image of the child born into original sin came from the Aristotelian notions overlaid with Judeao-Christian in this children were seen as terrible and needed redemption. Susannah Wesley recommended that parents must discipline their children so they can be saved from their sinfulness. In the 18th century, children were seen as the nature child, nature wants children to be children and not only as adults in the making. John Wesley recommended that parents should break the will of their children in drift to bring his Gods will into subjection so they will be subject to the will of God. During the 19th century children were portrayed as naughty rather than evil, but this has continued today for usage in books such(prenominal) as my naughty bitty sister. Towards the end of the 18th century, the perception of childhood was influenced by the romantic and evangelical. Romantic portrayed childhood as a time of happiness and innocence, children were seen as saturate d and should be protected before facing trials and responsibilities of adulthood for example by Rousseaus Emile, but it was later propagated by Blake, Coleridge and Wordsworth. Blake saw childhood not as the planning for what was to come but as the source of innocence, but his views were confused by Wordsworth emphasised that children were blessings from God , as childhood was seen as the age where virtue was domiciled, (James and Prout, 1997). The romantic child was short-lived by the evangelical child, the evangelical Magazine advises parents to teach their children that they are sinful polluted creatures.Currently, childhood is seen as unprotected to exploitation especially the way which the media plays a big role in the commercialisation of childrens merchandise such as toys and games. Childhood in Britain is often perceived as existence a time of innocence and happiness, a carefree time when children should be protected and sheltered from the adult world of sex, drugs and d elirium (Foley et al, 2001). Children are viewed as vulnerable especially when it relates to abuse or protecting them Holt et al (2008) suggested that the perception and understanding of children has changed overtime in relation to abuse as there is more search on children and juvenile throng who meet experienced abuse.The framework for constructing childhood consists of welfare of children, childrens rights and children in a social context. The welfare of children is still a disturb which continues to change the policy and legislation in order to throw out and safeguard the welfare of children in society. The UK government chose three main points in the United Nations conventionality on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) in 1999 which is quality protects ( course of study to support children aged 0-3 yrs and their families, sure start and National Childcare Strategy to ensure good-quality childcare for children aged 0-14 (James and James, 2004). Race, class, religion, sexual pr actice and disability shape childrens lives all these factors have an impact on their health, life chances and educational experience.UNCRC came into force in the UK in 1992, all organizations working with children refer to UNCRC, for example Childrens express and Article 12, aim to increase children and teenaged messs participation in the society. Unlike adults, children have fewer rights for example they do not have the right to vote as children do not yet have the competence to make such decisions. These special rights are for their protection rather than participation (James and James, 2004).James and James (2004) stated that the social positioning of children is inextricably linked with wider social changes associated with the roles of men and women, families and the state. Changes in the composition of the family structure and the increased involvement of women in the workforce in Western Europe and US have an impact upon the lives of children. External materials and cultur al forces of the families, both subtlety and directly shape children lives but also schools, childcare and healthcare settings influence the lives of children (James and James, 2004).Domestic violence is a health issue that is hidden but statistics shows that it is a problem not just in England but worldwide and it is also an indicator of other(a) forms of child abuse. Evidence from Brandon et als (2008) study shows that if domestic violence is present it leads to two-thirds of cases of child deaths and serious injury, therefore this shows that domestic violence is one factor that leads/contribute to death in childrens cases where children have been killed or seriously injured for example Victoria Climbe and baby P cases. It affects everyone in the society regardless of age, gender, wealth and sexuality. Home office (2010) defines Domestic violence as Any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial or excited) between adults wh o are or have been intimate partners of family members regardless of gender or sexuality. This take ons issues of concern to Black and other Minority Ethnic communities such as honour killings. McGee (2000) stated that domestic violence is experienced by women and children of all social classes, ethnicities and abilities. BCS (2001) estimates that one in five (21%) women and one in ten (10%) men has experienced at least one incident of non-sexual domestic threat or force since they were 16. Also when financial and emotional abuse is included, 26% of women and 17% of men had experienced domestic violence since the age of 16. The most affected group as a result of domestic violence are women, as statistics shows 32% of women had experienced domestic violence from this person four or more times compared with only 11 per cent of men (Mullender, 2004). Statistics from British Crime Survey (BCS) (1996) shows that half of families who suffered domestic violence had children aged 16 or und er living in the household. Mirrless-Black (1999) suggested that 29% of children experiencing domestic violence were alive(predicate) of what was adventure, children were more plausibly to be witness abuse against women who suffer abuse themselves. In the UK it is estimated that every year at least 750,000 children witness domestic violence and over a 100-day period an estimated 205,000 children will witness domestic violence (DoH, 2009).Children are affected not only by directly witnessing abuse, but also by living in an environment where their set about (main caregiver) is repeatedly victimised. Children in a home where the mother is being abused are also at greater risk of being abused themselves, or being used to control their mother, Hidden hurt (2010). in that respect are many ways that children and untried people can experience domestic violence such as directly being abused or witnessing the abuse as children are cognizant of what going on, and could be listening whils t the abuse happens. Mullender (2004) stated that what children see or hear when their mothers are being abused can not only include physical violence but also emotional abuse and put-downs, threats and intimidation, sexual jealousy and abuse. Children may witness the family being kept short of money or the abuser taking money from other family members and also experience isolation from family and friends. Also children could witness domestic violence by actually seeing ruffianly and abusive acts/behaviours, hearing arguments and seeing the physical and emotional effects of abuse and when trying to intervene to protect their mother or siblings but young people may experience domestic violence in their own relationships (DoH, 2002).Research has shown that children are likely to be at risk of physical, sexual and/or emotional abuse if they have witnessed or live in an abusive home. The National Childrens Home (NCH) Action for Children study (2002) found that children living with dome stic violence much experienced direct physical and sexual assault and that ten per cent had witnessed their mother being sexually assaulted. Abrahams (1994) study found that of women and children who had left a domestic abuser 10% of mothers had been sexually abused in front of their children, 27% of the partners had also assaulted the children, including sexually and 1/3 said that the children became violent and aggressive, including towards their mothers 31% create problems at school and 31% of children had low self-esteem. DoH (2009) stated that although the statistics shows that a gamy numbers of children witness domestic violence, official statistics are likely to underact its prevalence. It is difficult to estimate the exact number of women or children that experience domestic violence as not every incident is report or give away therefore the true figures are likely to be higher.Domestic violence has a big impact on children emotionally, socially, behaviorally, developme ntally and on their cognitive ability. It can be difficult to research the effects of domestic violence on children due to ethical issues as they are very vulnerable, but it is important to take in out what children experience in order to understand the possible impact on children on how to support them to cope. Hester et al (2000) stated that there is evidence that domestic violence has an impact on children but there is lack of knowledge to how factors such as age, race, economic status, gender, disability and childrens resilience influences children.Children can react to violence in different ways depending on whether they are witnessing or experiencing violence as some are more sensitive than others, but it depends on their age. There are two types of behaviours that can manifest in children, this could be externalised and internalised as some children could be more aggressive and are at a high risk of depression (DoH, 2009). McGee (2000) and Frantuzzo (1999) pointed out that c hildren exposed to domestic violence tend to display more aggressive behaviour, have problems in school/home and also behavioural problems such as depression, fears, suicidal behaviours, bed wetting and low self-esteem. Other behavioural and emotional effects could be feeling powerless/helpless, withdrawn, anger, and humiliate academic achievements Hester et al, (2000) suggested that this could be short or long term. However, all children could suffer from all of the above at any stage in their life without being affected or witnessing violence, research has shown that it is higher among children who witness domestic violence.Domestic violence can also affect childrens cognitive abilities as research has shown that what is happening at home can disrupt their education. Veltman et al (2000) found that 75% of cases children had delayed cognitive development and 86% had delayed language development. Research has shown that children exposed to domestic violence have difficulty in schoo l, lack concentration and more likely to refuse to attend school (McGee, 2000 and Humphrey and Mullender, 2001).There are long-term consequences of exposure to domestic violence especially to younger children as it is thought that they dont remember what happened however the effect can be carried to adulthood and could jeopardize their development. Cunningham and baker (2004) suggested that if domestic violence is carried into adulthood it can contribute to a cycle of adversity and violence. Osofsky (1999) stated that studies have indicated the link between exposure to violence and banish behaviours in children of all age group similarly Cunningham and baker suggested that exposure to domestic violence can have varied impact at different stages. The social issues of domestic violence are more likely to affect adolescent due to difficulties forming healthy intimate relationships with peers as a result of their experiences Levendosky et al (2002) suggests adolescents exposed to vio lence are less likely to have a secure auxiliary style and more likely to have an avoidant attachment style, indicating perhaps that they no longer feel trust in intimate relationships.Violence experienced by infants and toddlers can cause more emotional or behavioural problems as they tend to have excessive irritability, immature behaviour, sleep disturbances, emotional distress, fears of being alone, and regression in toileting and language (Holt et al, 2008 and Osofsky, 1999). Due to their age they are dependent on the mothers/care-giver for care, safety and security so they form the attachment. Studies have shown a link between secure parent-child attachments in infancy with later official developmental outcomes and these could affect how they relate to people in later life which could affect their normal development of trust and create social problems research on attachment in infancy has shown that the more serious the level of domestic violence, the higher the likelihood o f insecure, disorganised, attachments (DoH, 2009). Furthermore, it can be very difficult for these young children who often cannot describe their experiences in detail as their development is limited and their feelings/emotions are manifested as temper tantrums and aggression, crying and resisting comfort, or sadness and anxiety (Cunningham and Baker, 2004).Children welfare and rightsSafeguarding and children welfare is specify by HM government (2006) as the process of protecting children from abuse or neglect, preventing impairment of their health and development, and ensuring they are growing up in pot consistent with the provision of safe and efficient care that modifys children to have optimum life chances and enter adulthood successfully (p 27). Children are defined as in need when they are unlikely to reach or maintain a satisfactory level of health or development which will be significantly impaired without the provision of function (S17 (10) of the Children Act (1989). Some children are in need because they are suffering or likely to suffer significant aggrieve which justifies compulsory intervention in family life in the best interest of children. The Child Act (1989) places tariff on every topical anaesthetic authority to provide a range of bewitch services to ensure that children in need within their area welfare are promoted. The Act also places a duty on local authorities to make or cause enquiries to be made, where there is reasonable cause to suspect that a child is suffering or likely to suffer, significant harm (s 47). The Children Act (1989) recognises that to promote the welfare of children, services may need to be provided to address the difficulties their parents are experiencing.In order to promote the welfare and safeguard children, all the services and agencies working with children have to come together to provide effective support and services, as when children experience serious inquiries it is transparent that there has b een a failure of agencies working together this was an issue raised in the 2003 Victoria Climbi Inquiry report. Cm 5730 (2003) from Victoria Climbi Inquiry report recommended that many agencies have to work together to safeguard and promote the welfare of the children which cannot be achieved by a single agency as every service has a part to play. The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act (2004), Family Law Act (1996), Protection from Harassment Act (1997) and safeguarding children all state that it is a criminal offence if a child dies as a result of an unlawful act of the parents/adults (member of the family) who do not take actions to protect the child.The Children Act s11 (2004) and Working Together to safeguard children (HM Government, 2006) stated that safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children is everyones responsibility and central to all local authority functions. Similarly HM Government (2006) stated that protecting children from significant harm, safeguarding a nd promoting the welfare of children depends on effective joint working between agencies and sea captains that have different roles and expertise (p 33). Furthermore the Local Safeguarding Children Board (LSCB) main aim is to ensure the effective safeguarding of children by all local stake holders and the promotion of their welfare, both in a multi-agency context and within individual agencies (HM Government, 2010). LSCB should ensure better collaboration and co-ordination in cases which require services such as agencies working with both childrens and adult services such as agencies working with parents experiencing domestic violence.Working Together to Safeguard Children (HM Government, 2006) states that LSCBs should make appropriate arrangements at a strategic management level to involve among others, domestic violence forums (p 86). HM Government (2010) states that all health professionals working directly with children and young people should ensure that safeguarding and promo ting their welfare forms an integral part of all elements of the care they offer. The Children Act (2004) places a wider duty on the police for example ensuring policy plans including child protection strategies. They also specify the need to respond quickly and effectively to domestic violence incidents (Cleaver et al, 2007). Police have a key role in safeguarding children and working with other agencies to stop abuse (HM Government, 2010).In the past professionals have not worked together to address the impact of domestic violence for children, but measures have been placed to reduce this impact. As health professional we have to be able to identify the impact of domestic violence on children in order to help/support them. Research has shown that professionals struggle to identify and understand childrens experiences so cannot respond appropriately to their needs (Mullender et al, 2002). Children have several coping strategies can be through resilience and being listened to about their experiences but some children can recover quickly as children are different so we as professional need to consider each childs coping strategy. DoH (2009) stated that identifying protective factors and increasing resilience can reduce the risk of harm (p 30). Mullender et al (2002) suggested that a secure attachment to a non-violent parent/carer is a protective factor for children in distress from violence. Similarly, Osofsky (1999) stated that the most important protective resource to enable a child to cope with exposure to violence is a strong relationship with a competent, caring, positive adult, most often a parent. This is because violence can jeopardize the development of a childs ability to think and solve problems, but with the support of good parenting by either a parent or other significant adult, a childs cognitive and social development can progress.It is important as professionals that children are listened to, taken seriously and are kept informed and mingled in decisions Mullender et al (2000) pointed out that professional lack sensitivity to children who do not feel noticed or supported appropriately. Professionals need training on how to communicate to children to experience domestic violence by using language which will allow them to talk openly. Children want their voices to be heard as this will allow children to disclose any violence Mullender et al (2002) stated that listening to children who have lived with domestic violence has meant not only hearing voices that were silent but seeing other cases of violence from a child-centred perspective (p 206). Nevertheless when assessing childs needs, it is important to consider support for the family Holt et al (2008) and Humphreys and Mullender (2001) both suggested that it is essential to provide an holistic judgment that will take into account the risk and protective factors in each family, especially the mother and child. Likewise Hester et al (2000) suggested that any intervention st rategy needs to be individualised to children family context and should focus on stabilising the home environment to minimise disruption.They are several service and support for children who have/are experiencing domestic violence such as the hide out, family care support, NSPCC counselling for children and counselling and strong families programme. The hide out is a child friendly website for children and young people, it was created by Womens Aid to help children and young people to understand domestic abuse, and how to take positive action if its happening to you.Stronger families programme is a 12 calendar week therapeutic group programme from children and mothers who have experienced domestic violence. The aim is to achieve safety, empowerment and a safe place to discuss feelings. It helps towards the reparation to mother child relationship through a mother and child group. It is an inter-agency collaborative model that is offered throughout Nottingham city. The Stronger Famil ies programme is based on the successful model primarily initiated in Ontario, Canada. The Community Group programme for children exposed to women abuse has over 20 years of experience and research. It is based on early research by Peter Jaffe et al in London Ontario. In 1986 first manual and groups for children, 1996 favourable evaluation and in 1997 practitioners manual published. The London borough of Sutton has been instrumental in introducing the programme for children affected by domestic violence in the UK. Nottingham is now one of the first areas in the UK to offer the full group treatment programme to local mothers and children. In 1996 the programme was evaluated and it was found that children improved their ability to identify abusive actions and behaviours and children improved in their strategies to manage interpersonal conflict. Overall there was a positive satisfaction post group from both mothers and children.To improve the outcomes of domestic violence for children and young people, professional need to make children more aware of domestic violence and where to get help/support if they or friends are experiencing violence, especially in the community for example schools or places young people are more likely to go. McGee (2000) suggested that children and young people need more information about domestic violence and leaflets should be avialblae thorough schools and community, whilst Humphreys and Mullender (2001) suggested that raising awareness in youth settings is some other to help change people attitudes.Young people suggested that an educational campaign involving discussion about the media pressure and peoples attitudes towards violence (Mullender et al, 2000) similarly McGee (2000) recommended the need to have a public education campaign which is aimed at adults and children to address domestic violence, for example the Zero tolerance campaign in schools, media campaign to direct young people for support and information and raising a wareness as well as providing support in schools for children experiencing domestic violence.

Rites of passage of the spartan youth

Rites of public vitality of the spartan youthThe aim of this paper is to investigate the role of rites of pass clock time in the societalization of ascetical youth. Methodologically, our discussion will be found upon a) ancient literary sources, in grouchy Plutarch, Xenophon and Pausanias, b) interdisciplinary approaches initiated by modern historians and sociologists, and c) archaeological evidence. Discussion will protrude with an overview of the ancient grave teaching methodal placement and, in particular, an assessment of the evidence for the interest of both boys and girls in festivals. It is concluded that the sterns incorporated a system of rites of passage in their informational programme with the aim to achieving the greatest levels of socialisation of their youth, both boys and girls, the main reason for which was the definitive role that kinetic activities played in the scene of rites of passage.Key words Rites of passage, grievous socialization, Sparta youth.IntroductionThe fascinatingly complex grave tradition holds an important place in western governmental thought, while the wreak exercised by the images and the fables of Sparta are still potent today. Amongst the numerous Spartan institutions admiration is caused by the eminent Spartan information agogi, an education system which was under the electric charge and control of the State, which according to many historians lay behind Spartas success in becoming the most militarily successful Greek city-state (Kennell, 1995, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, Koliopouos, 2004).Education was bounden and invariant for all Spartans, a concord that enforced an important institutional restriction on the display of wealth, in contrast to other Greek city-states, in particular Athens. Uniformity in training and education was regulated in ancient Sparta through a system of Rites of Passage, this being defined as a ghostlike rite marking a transitional phase in a persons status in the mise en scene of social hierarchies, values and beliefs. Rites of passage are ceremonies surrounding events much(prenominal) landmark events as childbirth, coming of age, menstruation, marriage and death and are citationised by three phases separation, liminality, and re-incorporation.Socialization is defined as the adoption of the behaviour patterns of any precondition culture, describing the process by which people are integrated and incorporated into familiarity. The more than effective socialization is, the greater the internalization of prevailing social norms and values. Social coerce and social coercion are not expressed via imitation but via the internalization of collective consciousness, spontaneously and at the same time via the obligation of the unmarried to accept the social norm (Durkheim, 2000, p. 17).The result of this public way of life was that each citizen of Sparta should accept the intense pressure of public opinion so that he could cope with the models of behaviour established by the Spartan society.MethodologyThe first category of sources upon we rely is historical evidence even though it contains plenty of voids caused by successive alterations throughout centuries. Subsequently, we will turn upon literary testimonies. At first we shall focus on historiography that provides an overall frame, in order to comprehend an era and secondly on texts of political theory and philosophy that offer direct testimonies regarding historical situations and third gearly on poetry and rhetorical speeches, (Alkman, Tyrtaios, Aristophanes, Isocrates) that light up Spartan society of the archaic and classical times.Of enormousness is the information from Herodotus and Thucydides, even though they present the Spartan structure of their times as very primitive. Lakedaemonion Politeia of Kritias presents the first idealized forecast of Sparta, an idea that appears later in Xenophons Lakedaemonion Politeia. An analysis of Spartan society was also attempted by Plato (Politeia, Nomoi) and Aristotle (Politica). A common feature in both is a critical attitude towards the idealization of Sparta and towards the theory that presents the decline of the city as a result of contemporary political erosion. Additionally, Plutarchs work lays emphasis on the virtuous aspect of the education. The Lycurgus work constitutes the foundation stone of the key-elements of modern stereotypes. Since the 19th century and the birth of the science of history, through Mullers, Grottes, Foustels de Coulange projects, whose notions form a basis for the interpretation of social-politic subject of Spartan society or through those of the 20th century (Nilssons, Jeanmaires and Finelys works), the issue acquired ad hoc scientific and historical dimension. During the 20th century these approaches were enriched by the conclusions of comparative ethnology thusly allocating the origin of different educational institutions and processes to a common Mediterrane an past. A second instructive opinion shifts interest into the political, social and economic objectives of education, placing emphasis on its aristocratic character and on the spirit of contest, on the socialization of the fresh person and on the value system that youngsters inherit. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 387). Useful tools are the essays of comparative ethnology regarding age-related classes, test and ceremonies, in order to reconcile literature with the archaeological evidence. Vidal Naque points out that literary, philosophical and historical texts, mythical narrations and social practices, on one hand, and the world of rituals related to political decisions, should be bridged. In his work, St. Hodkinson aims at presenting an overall picture of a complicated society, such(prenominal) as the Spartan, approaching it through diverse levels and different social groups. new(a) scientific studies concerning Sparta attempt to comprehend its internal structures. (Powell 1988, 1989, Ric her 1999, Cartledge and Spawforth 1989, Hodkinson and Powell 1999, Kennell 1995, Brigalias 1999, Ducat, 2006).Agogi and Spartan festivalsAgogi education of young persons, both girls and boys in Sparta which included, in addition to writing, reading and music, many kinetic activities such as games, gymnastics, sports, dancing, lookup and forces exercises. These actions, apart from their incorporation into the daily educational program, were performed during public feasts and ghostlike ceremonies where participation of youngsters constituted part of their agogi and also in the scope of the rites of passages where kinetic activities held a leading role. In Sparta the eubstance and the mind were exercised at the same time depending on the age of children. This parallel exercise dictated a concrete system of values. Agogi had all the way a social character and the function accomplished by it, was of great importance. As members of an organized society, i ndividuals are affect by the heathenish level of the group, accept the educative effect of the whole and shape their personalities. The State is who determines the objectives and the means of each educational system. Spartan education aimed at infusing common harmony and at cultivating we at the expense of I. Agogi aimed, above all, at the homogeneity of the citizens. Spartan festivals especially, Gymnopaidiai, Karneia and Yakintheia were the arena for competition between different age groups, and involved the participation of the entire body politic (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 298). interlocking in religious and public events was compulsory for all youth and formed an official part of their training. cognitive operation played an important role in these rituals and the kinetic- bulletproof-arm skills of young Spartans were assessed by the entire body politic (Athenaeus, 14, 630d-631b, Polignac, 2007, p. 70-71, Ducat, 2006, p. 263-265, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71).Gymnopaidiai involved the participation of the ent ire body of citizens. As furthermost as we know, each group go ind with four springs trichoria, a childrens choir, one of adolescents and another of heavy(a) males. Many scholars consider the contests of the Gymnopaidiai as tests of endurance for the children and an integral part of their education (Pettersson, 1992, p. 45-47). In the festival of the Gymnopaidiai we also identify elements of incorporation, such as bound or nudity, elements that played an important role in the integration of youth into the body politic. The game of sphere was another ritual that was assessed and characterised as a transition from adolescence to adulthood (Kennell, 1995, p. 60, Ducat, 2006, p. 270-274).At the Karneia, the role of youth was different from that in other festivals firstly, the age of the participants was from twenty on, a rather marginal physical age for educational purposes secondly, young Spartans didnt only participate in the events but were also trusty for organising them, whic h clearly indicates that they were indeed the future of the community.The participation of young Spartans in dance, contests and games constituted a great occasion of communication. Social bonds were thus strengthened and children played out more time outside, collectively and creatively. In this way young people developed better personal relationships, lived in harmony, rhythm, beauty and practically enjoyed a better quality of life.The jubilancy of the Yakintheia the other important religious festival of the Spartans provided a great opportunity for girls to show off their marriageable skills.In all three important religious festivals the young members of the community played a significant role, not at an individual level, as in the rites of passage, but, along with other participants of different ages, in the context of the body politic where they displayed the achievements of their training and were accordingly evaluated.The process of socialization was integrated with religiou s activity from an early age, confirming the socio-religious aspect towards which the educational system was directed. (Ducat, 2006, p. 276-277, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71, Sigalos, 1959, p. 214-216, Baltrusch, 2004, p. 98). drill the body was the main aim of education. Young Spartans took part in many contests whose principal aim was to increase the feeling of competition amongst them. These contests mainly took place during cultural religious events, thus connecting the agogi, the education, with religious devotion. Besides the games, though, music and dance played fundamental role in such events. Dance and music had public and pedagogical function within Spartan society. All citizens participated collectively, as members of their own classes, undertaking roles hierarchically structured. Moreover, Spartan feasts were based on the unselfish attendance of citizens. Joint participation in dance under the guidance of the chorodidaskalos (dance instructor) constituted a major feature to the political and social life of Sparta. Distinction in these contests and in dances, success, and physical capacity along with morals were openhanded elements of social classification. These factors had primary significance to the rank that someone would occupy in the social conscience. Public praise or reproach, success or rejection of a boy or a girl had decisive impact in their social recognition and status.DiscussionCommenting on the fact that Sparta had been described as a democratic state, Aristotle (Pol. 1294 b 21-7) recognized that it featured certain democratic distinctions shared among the rich and the poor classes, such as uniformity in education, food provision and dress, sectors of everyday life in which the possession of wealth did not provide any advantage to its holder (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 300-326).Spartan children spent most of their childhood from around the age of seven up to the age of eighteen- training with other children, rather than living with their fami lies. The effect of this companionship and co-existence on children was the ageless experience of an intense pressure to conform to the social rules and the generally accepted models of behaviour. (Koliopoulos, 2004, p. 101).In history of education Sparta certainly possesses a concrete place. Most characteristic of all Spartan products is its constitutional system with which, for the first time, the city-state appears as the force practicing agogi, taking into account the total significance of this term. (Jaeger, 1968 p. 11). Spartan education was considered as a procedure where youngsters should participate in a common system and simultaneously a selected team should be distinguished. The principal objective was their suitable upbringing so that they could cope with their role as citizens soldiers (Legras 2005, p. 38). P. Cartledge (2004 p. 32) mentions that agogi was a system of education, training and socialization. It constituted an obligatory educational circle a type of orde al for young persons in order to reach the level of adults (Cartledge, 2004, p.129). Jeanmaire (1913) in his article on the Krypteia of Lacedaemonians and in his book of Couroi et Couretes (1939) interpreting the agogi refers to the survival of ancient initiative ceremonies influenced from comparative ethnology. He speaks of the rites of passage, the tests. Everybody, however, underlines the obligatory public character of the agogi and the fact that it was common to everyone. (Levy 2008, p. 76).Agogi lasted from the age of seven to the age of eighteen. Children spent most of their time living a communal life, especially after(prenominal) the age of twelve, and their education was basically divided into three circles based on the childs physical age, namely paides (children), meirakia (youngsters) and epheboi (adolescents). Each cycle included specific ordeals and a specific training program of intellectual and physical exercises.The Agogi constituted a range of initiative and educa tional cycle of age-related groups and processes. It was meticulously organized, comprehensive and competitive. Moreover, it accomplished a duplicate function of socialization and education (Cartledge, 2004, p. 195). Exercising the body formed the nucleus of agogi. Young Spartans took part in many contests whose main aim was to increase the scent out of competition amongst them. Activities of Spartan education were mainly concentrated on body training. During these festivals, fights and dances took place, where contestants demonstrated their bodily strength, the harmony of their body and their velocity in running. Distinction in these fights, success and physical ability constituted basic elements of social classification. Agogi made use of these contests, games, fights and dance in order for knowledge to be checked and the opera hat one to be selected. The whole education was characterized by a spirit of rivalry in which awards of honors and rewards to the feat of competitions h eld a significant place, thus limiting discriminations based on origin and wealth. Competitions and processional demonstrations of rites of passage, that determined the physical ability of youngsters, passed also down to agogi. These events included public inspections of the skillfulness of young Spartans during festivals. The results of agogi were evaluated along with the kinetic and physical abilities of boys and girls (Kyle, 2007, p. 183, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69). Participation in these rituals guaranteed a mutual recognition of social placement and confirmed the integration in the community, defining the first form of political identity.Writing and reading, music, poetry, dance, acrobatic contests, attendance at feasts, as well as participation in activities that to a modern way of thinking seem strange and bizarre, such as, paederasty and ordeals like theft and the Krypteia. All those constituted the diverse fields of expression, acquisition and application of the knowledge gai ned as well as the means employed for their socialisation. The testimonies we possess, puree the citys efforts to teach young children how to co-exist with children of the same age, older children and adults as part of a whole, as well as to initiate new members into its culture. (Sakellariou.).The duty of the State and its educational program was to create the perfect citizen who demonstrated a deep sense of political, military and social duty, bore weapons for the defence and the glory of his city, governed its affairs, complied with its rules and maintained its values and traditions. Spartan education thus shaped the model of the citizen-soldier (Birgalias 1999, p. 388, Ducat 2006, p. 168). In addition, compliance to the accepted models of behaviour became subject to constant control, which comprises the totality of rewards and sanctions (praise and disapproval) with which society regulates individual behaviour. (Gizeli, 1993, p.119, Nova Kaltsouni, 1998, p. 80-84).The fact, af ter all, that education in Sparta was intensively collective contributed to the socialization of children and to the growth of their personality, thus leading to a smooth future incorporation into the society. During their education young Spartans were have to participate in the religious feasts of their city. The significance of such feasts, which were organized by the state, was crucial to their upbringing. In most of them, where the entire city was present, children of both sexes participated (Ducat, 2006, p. 251). Processions, masks, competitions and contests constituted part of Spartan festivals. Athletic events, dance and music the moral aim of which is always associated to the tendencies of constitution, all these are the basic elements of feasts. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 185-187). Most significant festivals were those of Karneia, Yakintheia and Gymnopaidia. Karneia is a rite of obvious importance for the community, Primitive rural ritual. (Brelich, 1969, p. 148).asic education included primarily reading, writing, maths and musical acts (music, poetry, singing and dancing). Contests and different sports constituted major part of the agogi. According to Ducat (2006) three were the elements of Spartan education for young persons, the process of rites of passage and education organized by the state, the courses that like in other cities were provided by schoolteachers and the prolonged exposure to social institutions as long as children were in touch with choosing and voting for the best.Another characteristic feature of this era was the constant competition promoted among youngsters. (Ducat, 2006, p. 333-339).Thus, the attitude and behaviour of Spartan children was incessantly supervised by the Paidonomos, the Ephors, the elderly and the women (Ducat, 2006, p.162). The historian Plutarch (Lycurgus 14.5-6) mentions that in certain religious ceremonies, which were particularly popular as spectacles and in which all citizens of all social ranks participated, i ncluding the Kings and the Senate, young girls composed songs which praised or mocked the deeds of the boys. Such songs that formed part of a game were in fact as effective as warning by the adults. In this case, girls were being employed as an educational means for the amelioration of the boys. Girls learnt to become strict judges so that the young Spartan boys were obliged to make an effort to improve themselves and earn the public praise of the girls (Ducat, 2006, p. 162, Kargakos, 2006, p. 551).Pederasty was also incorporated into the military, ritualistic and educational system of Spartan agogi. The adult lover, the eispnilas, was responsible for the behaviour, the values, the performance and the character of his young beloved, the aitas.The relationship developed between a child and an adult male was in fact contributed to the childs gradual integration into adult society (Kennell, 1995, p.125-126, Kargakos, 2006, p.551). Emphasis was placed, therefore, on the process of soci alization via the association of children with the older members of the community, during which attendance at political discussions played an important role (Birgalias, 1999).All decisions political science Spartan adolescence tended to stress the distinction between adolescents and younger children, as a way of integration into adult life. Educational practices and events during festivals, such as the games at Platanistas or the ritual stealing of cheese from the altar of Artemis Orthia, were performed at this age. According to Isocrates, successful stealing was publicly declared in order to attract the praise and celebrate of the others.Stealing and Krypteia constituted in a way a game of hide and seek, an exercise teaching children how to live and survive alone depending merely on the powers of nature and exclusively on their physical and mental strength (Xenophon, Lak. Pol. 2.9, Kennell, 1995, p. 122-123, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, p. 202-203, Hodkinson, 2004, p. 205).Repor ting on the legislators orders in preparation of the new Spartan citizen for war, Plato (Law 1.633 b.) underlines the importance of communal meals, gymnastics, hunting and ordeals of endurance such as wrestling and the ritual whipping on the altar of Artemis Orthia. The game of sphere, the games at Platanistas, the ritual stealing of cheese from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia and the ritual whipping that later developed into the contest of karteria (endurance), were competitive games. The city of Sparta organised such public spectacles during which children and young men demonstrated their virtues and courage, and were accordingly evaluated (Ailianus, Poik.Hist. 14.7, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69, Kyle, 2007, p.183). asunder from fighting, dance also played an important role in the education of young Spartans. Dance and ritual were interwoven and inextricably linked to all important Spartan rites of passage, namely the passages to puberty, adulthood and marriage. Practice in dance and s ong constituted the fundamental means of education and the maintenance of social institutions. The circle dance formed an indirect way for the foundation of the relationship between the citizen and the city, forming, as it did, a microcosm of the community. The circle creates unity, unifying members of a group with common characteristics (Papadopoulou, 2004). The chorostasio, the area where groups share common characteristics (sex, age, order) and common aims (invocation of the divine, celebration) performed dancing rituals, allowed individuals to observe and be observed, choose and be chosen. Consequently, dance and music functioned as social forces, especially in the context of religious ritual, and conveyed messages of uniformity and unity during public events. (Naerebout, 2004).No doubt, music and dance contests held central place in the most important Spartan festivals, more specifically the Karneia, Yakintheia and the Gymnopaidiai. In the Gymnopaidies, the social/educational role of dance is reflected on the simultaneous participation of individuals of different ages children, adults and the elderly, all sang the works of famous poets (Athenaeus, 15.678 b-c).In Gymnopaidies children had a prominent role as long as the feast mainly included dancing (orchisi) of naked youngsters, where participants, with rhythmical movements, represented scenes of fight and pangratium. They practiced different gymnastic exercises and moved rhythmically their legs as if they were in the palaistra. (Athenaeus, 15,.678 b-c). They displayed a competitive character (Xenophon Ellinika 6.4 16). It is in these feasts where we can locate evidence of primitive rites of passage.The song contests during the festival of the Yakintheia had the character of initiation and aimed at the integration of young people into the adult community. During the second day of the Yakintheia various spectacles took place. A lavish feast was held in which children draining tunics played stringed instr uments and chanting hymns to the god, groups of young people sang traditional songs and dancers performed to the accompaniment of the pipe and sung hymns (Athenaeus 4.139 d-t).Agogi incorporated many elements of such initiative rites of passage paltry further on adaptations of crucial importance in order to be functional within the frames of a political society. It converted premature inaugural rituals into a governmental system (Ducat, 2006, p. 181-188, Levy, 2008, p. 147-161). In these festivals the entire society participated, and this was a fact that strengthened social bonds. Young persons demonstrated their bodily kinetic abilities and were judged by the political body. These religious feasts incorporate and bring people into the heart of society. During these contests adolescents were grouped according to ancestral races and groups and took part in the competitions (Kennell, 1995, p. 51-52).Song and dancing contests also took place during the third largest Spartan festival, the Karneia (Euripides, Alkeste, 445-451). Scenes from the ceremonial ritual are depicted on a red-figured crater from the Spartan colony at Tarentum in southern Italy dancers, bearing baskets on their heads, perform the kalathiskos dance next to a column inscribed with the word Karneios (Papadopoulou, 2004).For young persons who participated in the feast of Yakintheia this was equivalent to the passage from adolescence to the status of adult warrior. Processions, dance and fights were some of the activities carried out by youngsters who were taking part. The myth of Hyacinth might have been related to rites of outbreak in Sparta as many elements of initiative impost exist and this was considered as a festival of resumption of the world (Richer, 2004, p. 77-84). It was a compound complex religious ceremony. Nilsson (1912, 1955) tracks down an invocation of spring within the comfortable moment of celebration Brelich (1969) says that the contrast between joy and sorrow is marking a passage to a new era. The objective of Yakintheia was, maybe, the secure integration of young persons in society.Special mention should be made to the education of Spartan girls. The establishment of rites and contests for socialisation and the passage to womanhood were immensely important for both them and the Spartan State. Girls education took place in public and was not restricted to the house, nor were they excluded from the life of men (Birgalias, 1999, p.256, Ducat, 2006, p. 232-237). Spending a large part of their life in public would have helped them to fulfil their public role as good and responsible wives. (Ducat, 2006, p. 245, Cartledge, 2004, p. 640-641).State ceremonies, such as religious processions, festivals and competitions, promoted the participation of girls in public life and their equality to men. The education and training of Spartan women gained them Pan-Hellenic fame. With systematic physical exercise girls were trained to be fit, suffer the pangs of childb irth and give birth to strong healthy Spartan warriors.Xenophon (Lakedaimonion Politeia, 1.3-5) and Plutarch (Lycurgus, 14) inform us that in certain rituals accompanied by dance and song, women participated naked displaying their fitness, the ideal promoted by Spartan education (Kokkorou-Alevra, 2002, p. 131-133).Although athletic contests, (e.g. fighting, for girls and women) are testified elsewhere in Greece, those in Sparta constituted not only as part of religious ceremonies (as in the other Greek city-states) but more importantly they were incorporated into the educational system, which included girls from all social ranks.Various testimonies survive to the fitness of Spartan women Alcmans Parthenia (11.58-9, 11. 45-9) gives a vivid account of the athletic contests a bronze figurine dated to c. 500 BC (now in the British Museum) which depicts a young Spartan athlete or dancer is indicative of the exemption and the robustness of the girl Pausanias (3.13.7) also mentions female contests during a festival in honour of Dionysus Kolonatas Hysichius reports that women competed in racing (Ducat, 2006, p. 231). Similar reports can be found in Theocrituss Helens Epithalamios (11, 22-5) in which young girls participated in racing contests that took place near the baths of the River Eurotas. Plutarch suggests that exercise was an antidote to lethargy and adolescents were prepared for harmonious marriages because of the successful co-existence of boys and girls in the playground, a common training that inspired the Edgar Degas in his Spartan Girls Challenging Boys (c. 1860-1862, London National Gallery).Such training aimed to create women with a strong sense of responsibility and conscience. In no other Greek city-state were women so actively involved in public affairs, nor was their attendance in public assemblies so decisive. Spartan women, even though they werent official members of governmental and institutional bodies, took part in important decision-making ac ts, being allowed freedom of speech and able therefore to influence decision making. It follows, then, that they were not considered insufficient to men.If the rites of passage were significant for a boy in order to become the ideal citizen-soldier, for girls such rites were important in order to make them good mothers and unresolved supervisors of their households. Marriage was for the girl what war was for a boy both situations mark the perfection of their nature and the means of entry into a situation in which each one participates in the life of the others. (Vermant, 2003, p. 40-41).The participation of children in festivals was obligatory in ancient Sparta. Such occasions, in which elements of ancient rites of passage can be discerned, intensify communal cohesion (Kitto, 2002, p. 278-280) with the establishment of public ceremonies incorporating adolescents into adult society, organised by the community and common for all young participants (Ducat, 2006, p.182). If any young individual failed in the ordeals, he/she was considered incompetent to become a full member of the community.During the rites of passage the young person refrained from communal life and had to fight to survive in the wild, manoeuvre by certain rituals and teachings. By incorporating certain elements of these archaic rites of passage into communal life, Spartan education succeeded in forming them into a strong political system.The innovative piece of this article is the way the subject is approached by examining physical and kinetic activities and the role played by these elements, in the socialization of a young person. Living in an era of globalization and individualism, in a world lacking of exercise and of wise management of free time and, above all, in a block deprived of social coherence, it is Spartan agogi that teaches us the value of exercise and physical activities, the culture of the body, the opposition to materialism, the value of tradition and public feasts and its effectiveness in socialization and social cohesionConclusionWhat this paper has set out to establish is that rites of passage, interwoven with kinetic activities, were incorporated into the agogi the educational system of Sparta that played a glacial role in the socialisation of youth. Sparta was a Greek city-state unique in the interrelationship between its educational system and its political, social and economic life, a system which conveyed and propagated a complete system of values that fully expressed Spartan society education obligatory and uniform for all both boys and girls by not promoting me against us, learnt to define themselves as part of the whole rather than at an individualistic level, a way of upbringing and teaching inspired obedience, bravery, discipline and professional military ability.

Native Son, A Critical Review :: essays research papers

Bigger, Crime, and SocietyIn the heated trial that determines whether Bigger Thomas will live or die, his supportive defense attorney exclaims, You cannot eat this man, your Honor, for we have made it plain that we do not recognize that he lives Living in the Chicago slums as a poor, uneducated young dark man whose only confidence can come from acts of violence, Bigger Thomas of Richard Wrights novel Native Son is destined to meet a poor fate. Anger and hopelessness are a daily reality for him as he realizes that his life has no real meaning. When he accidentally murders a young, rich, blanched woman, however, his actions begin to have meaning as he accepts the crime as his own, even while he lies to the authorities. Bigger is, of course, taken down by a society who takes offense at the remarks of his supporters and seeks to justify itself. Bigger himself is doomed, but his emotions, his actions, and his motivations all help to give the reader a window into the mind of a felon and a repressed inner city African American.Fear, flight, fate. These are the three simple and meaningful words chosen by Wright to mark Biggers sad existence. Growing up angry at the purity world, he is forced into working as a chauffeur for a rich white family, the Daltons, to support his struggling family. He is frightened and angered by the attempts of Mary Dalton and her Communist friend Jan to be friendly to him and interprets their actions as condescending. As he tries to kick the bucket a drunken Mary to avoid detection after carrying her upstairs, he accidentally kills her. In a time of panic, he burns the body in the furnace and concocts an elaborate lie imputing the Communist Party. He lies, dodges questions, and even tries to demand ransom, but this can only last for so long before Bigger is named as chief suspect. He brings with him in flight his girlfriend Bessie and later kills her, as she cannot continue with him nor return home. After being caught and brought to t rial he is supported by attorney Boris Max who defends him intensely with his own eloquence and conviction. Bigger discovers that the man, though white, feels genuinely for him, but in the end, as dictated by fate, he is sentenced to oddment and is granted no clemency by a society refusing to take any responsibility for a member for whom it has failed to care.

Warfare and its Psychological Impact Essay -- War Psychology Disorders

Warfare and its Psychological ImpactWarfare causes many people to suffer from psychological problems. Many times, these problems come in the form of mental illness. According to the DSM-VI, which is the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of affable Disorders, a mental disorder is a clinically momentous behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern thats associated with current distress (a painful symptom) or disability (impairment in one or more classic areas of functioning) or with a significantly greater risk of suffering, death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. This syndrome or pattern mustnt be merely an expected, culturally sanctioned re scoretee such as grief over the death of a loved one. Whatever the cause, it must be considered a sign of a behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction.(Diseases) Mental disorders are diseases. However, according to the Director of the National Institute of Mental Health, mental disorders are treatable diseases. Mental illnesses have been proven to be illnesses of the brain. These illnesses can a lot be treated with medication and psychological therapy. Depression is the leading cause of disability in the world. Some believe that depression is a weakness in character, but it is a real disease with real symptoms. More people suffer from depression than heart disease. Mental illness is a serious disease. Mental disorders are serious problems with serious effects. In war there are three main groups affected by war soldiers, non-combatants, and society. There are prejudicial psychological consequences caused by war, both culturally and individually, these make war more costly than we realized previously. If we take these negati... ...nd there would be a lot less(prenominal) psychologically injured people in the US and Vietnam today. Our newfound resistance to war will prove to provide a psychologically healthy environment for not only us, but our children as well, for t hey are our treasure and our future. Our children are more important than any amount of oil or gold. It is our duty to make up a positive environment for children in this world. Their well-being should be our first concern. They are not responsible for the conflict, but they suffer severely. They are particularly vulnerable. (Otunnu par 2) According to The Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict there is no escaping the conclusion that combat, and the killing that lies at the heart of combat, is an extraordinarily traumatic and psychologically costly tendency that profoundly impacts all who participate in it. (Grossman and Siddle par.2)

Summary and Analysis of Tale of Melibee :: Canterbury Tales Melibee Essays

Summary and Analysis of Tale of Melibee (The Canterbury Tales)Prologue to the Tale of MelibeeThe Host interrupted the Tale of Sir Thopas, pleading with the fabricator to desist. He told him that the rhymes were doggerel, and asks him to tell a tale in prose. The narrator agrees and asks for the groups attention once more. AnalysisThe connecting passages between the tales that Chaucer himself tells ar more dramatically fulfilling than the stories themselves, which are small(a) more than comic anecdotes. These passages best illustrate the narrative behind the tales themselves. The tales exist as they relate to one another in a complex stick of interactions between the various pilgrims they are not simply a set of free-standing short stories given a rough context. The tales themselves are products of this interaction the Tale of Melibee that Chaucer leave behind give is a response to the Hosts unfavorable reaction to the Tale of Sir Thopas. The Tale of MelibeeA young man called Mel ibee, mighty and rich, had a wife named Prudence and a daughter Sophie. One day while he was in the fields he left his wife and daughter in his house. Three of his old foes stone-broke into the house, raped his wife and left his daughter for dead by wounding her in five places her feet, hands, eyes, nose and mouth. When Melibee returned he began to weep. Prudence consoled him, then asked him to desist and to be as patient as Job. She tells him to call on the counsel of his true friends. His physicians vowed to cure Sophie. They advice him to set guards at his house, but not to attempt vengeance. The younger men, however, talk over him to declare war. Prudence agreed with the elders, who did not want to attack the perpetrators in haste. However, Melibee cites Solomon, who advised that no wife or child should ever have command over a husband. Melibee and Prudence continue to debate on the subject, discussing every bit of minutiae in the subject debated. Finally she advises that he delay his attack on his enemies, telling them that if they will accept peace they shall be forgiven. They came to the court of Melibee and he gives them an option they can put the punishment in the hands of Melibee or Prudence. The wisest of his enemies admits that they are unworthy to come into his court, and submit to his judgment.

Stem-Cell Research and the Media Essay -- Persuasive Argumentative Es

Stem-Cell Research and the Media Biomedical technology is getting much press due to the stem-cell debate. A controersial offspring in itself, with the President of the United States taking a stand on the issue for living purposes, the topic has received even more press over the consequences resulting from President supplys decision. With the Presidents approval rating well over 80 percent since the September 11th attack, those who contest any of his decisions have been receiving feelings of anger from those who support him. I, however, would ilk to take a stand and contest Bushs decision to limit the stem cell research funding. This paper presents two obliges that examine Bushs decision in distinct ways one looks at the consequences from the point of view of stem cell researchers, and the other presents an avenue for the Presidential administration to defend their decision, which happens to be contradictory to their lay claim to be concerned with the science behind stem cell research. While the Janesville Gazette article is supposedly a defense of Bushs decision, analyzing the claims and actual behaviors of Tommy Thompson and President Bush exemplifies their weak argument. The Newsweek article by Begley (2001) conveys information about the consequences of President George W. Bushs decision to limit the federal funding for stem-cell research to the 64 colonies already in existence. The article does not explicitly state President Bushs decision to limit the funding of the research to the current 64 colonies, but only states that the President announced, there were gobs of stem-cell colonies around the word that federally funded scientists would be allowed to study. Begleys way of co... ...ns position, a careful analyzer can see major contradictions between his claims to use science to do work the decision and his actual decision obviously not being based on science. By also examining and article which roots itself in the people touch on daily with stem cell research, and by capturing their concerns with the Presidents funding decision, this paper serves as a well rounded critique of Bushs stem cell research funding decision in a time when patriotism does not allow for easy critiques of the current administration. References Begley, Sharon. (2001, September 10). In search of stem cells It turns out many an(prenominal) of the 64 lines may be unusable. Newsweek, p. 57. Stem cell decision defended Thompson Number of developed lines mad no difference to Bush. (2001, September 7). The Janesville Gazette, pp. A1, A8.